When Automated Vehicles Cannot Retaliate: Driver-Initiated Takeover Under Aggression in Mixed Traffic
Simulator study finds drivers initiate takeovers under sharp braking and high aggression because automated vehicles cannot retaliate to human drivers.
Published Sep 24, 2026Paper ↗
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A simulator study of 42 drivers persuasively shows sharp braking and high aggression trigger retaliatory takeovers where defensive AVs fall short.
Abstract
When exposed to aggression from surrounding human-driven vehicles (HDVs), automated vehicles (AVs) with conditional automation adopt defensive responses. However, human drivers may expect to respond with emotion-driven, retaliatory behaviors. This discrepancy between human drivers’ expectations and AV behavior may lead to driver-initiated takeovers, introducing abrupt control transitions and retaliatory driving that threaten traffic safety. In a driving simulator study with 42 licensed drivers, participants experienced different aggressive events (honking, tailgating, and sharp braking) under low and high aggression levels. The results indicated that drivers perceived higher levels of aggression and were more likely to initiate takeovers during sharp braking compared to honking and tailgating, as well as under higher aggression levels. The differences in perceived aggression across event types diminished as the aggression level increased. These findings provide insights into when and why drivers override defensive automation and offer implications for the design of AV behavior in mixed-traffic environments.